Questions for Stuff

1. What issues divided the Whigs and Democrats? How did the Panic of 1837 and its aftermath solidify the Democratic and Whig parties? How did the massive immigration of the 1840s influence the balance of power between the Whig and Democratic parties? 2. In what ways did the concept of Manifest Destiny affect the foreign and domestic policies of the US in the years 1840-1850? What economic and political forces fed westward expansion during the 1840s? 3. Why did Americans settle in Texas? How did it become an independent country in 1836? 4. Why did the U. S. wait until Tyler’s final days in office to annex Texas?What problems did the annexation of Texas bring to the country? 5. What were the countries that claimed the Oregon territory? How was the dispute eventually settled? 6. What were the arguments that both sides employed for and against going to war with Mexico? 7. How did the acquisition of the Mexican Cession spark a national debate? 8. To what extent did the Compromise o f 1850 represent a genuine meeting of the minds between northerners and southerners? How, specifically, did the controversy over enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act contribute to the undoing of the Compromise? 9.Why did the Whig Party collapse in the wake of the Kansas-Nebraska Act? Why did the Democratic Party not collapse? 10. How did the outbreak of conflict in Kansas influence the rise of the Republican Party? 11. Why is John Brown's raid on Harper's Ferry considered a significant historical event? 12. What led southerners to conclude that the North was bent not merely on restricting territorial slavery but also on extinguishing slavery in southern states? 13. What was the platform of each party in the election of 1860? Why did Lincoln win? 14. How would YOU explain the causes of the Civil War?

New Technology: Police Body Worn Cameras Essay

Our department is currently going to purchase new technology in the form of officer worn cameras. Over the next five years this technology will be put in place. The police department will see many benefits from this technology in the areas of evidence preservation, reduced liability and improved efficiency for the police department. The officer worn camera is a device that has become cost effective and efficient in size and capabilities. The camera is attached to the Officers uniform and allows the officer to capture video and audio of his activities throughout his tour of duty. This will be used to document traffic stops, consent searches and â€Å"res gestae† statements made to officers. The officer worn camera will reduce false allegations made against officers, and the investigative overhead that comes along with these allegations. The future benefits from the officer worn cameras in the reduction of liability to the city, the police department and the officer. According to Sir Ronnie Flanagan’s policing review published last week, not only do cameras provide improved evidence, they can also reduce the time taken to file incident reports by 22 per cent, which would give officers an extra 50 minutes of patrol time per officer per day, according to the report (Kelly, 2008) In this new era of budget shortfalls and diminished manpower this new technology can provide a more efficient police department by freeing up time that is normally spent on unnecessary investigations. Implementing reporting procedures using cameras and video can also reduce time spent on report writing duties. In Conclusion, the purchase of the officer worn cameras will reduce liability in cases where false accusations are made. Video statements can be used preserve evidence and the capability of reporting will create a more efficient police department. References: Foster, R. E. (2005). Police technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice Hall Kelly, N. (2008). Police pilot body-worn cameras. Computing, 6. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/212414151?accountid=32521

A Critique of Tess Onwueme’s Tell It to Women Essay Example for Free

A Critique of Tess Onwueme’s Tell It to Women Essay ? To Women, we travel back to a Nigerian village in postcolonial Africa. The story enlightens the audience about the dichotomy of traditionalism versus modernism and the ways in which different cultures interact. It ends by revealing the true meaning of culture; the real quality in a society that arises from a passion for what is excellent in arts, manners, and customs. Overall, the play discusses the role of women within this Nigerian village and largely examines the conflict of whether it is better to advance with the rest of the world, or to hold on to the traditions that truly make a society independent and beautiful. The play begins with Yemoja, the most important woman in the village, in a house with Daisy and Ruth, two feminist western-educated scholars. They are the primary antagonists in the play. At this early stage, we see that Daisy and Ruth are not fond of Yemoja. Daisy and Ruth are leaders of the â€Å"Better Life for Rural Women† campaign, which inspires women to believe that they are not only equal to men in many ways, but are even superior in others. The two of them select Yemoja as the mediator between the village and the western world that they are so desperate to force upon the women. The movement causes a great disturbance in the village between the men and women, and especially with Yemoja’s husband and father. Back in Daisy’s home, she has been getting into many disagreements with her family. Her husband Okei, disagrees with her passion about the feminist movement and they frequently fight about it. Her mother-in-law, Sherifat, still encourages Yemoja to participate in the village’s traditional tribal rituals. Sherifat expresses that it would a terrible fate if Yemoja attempts to assimilate to the modern culture and loses her roots. As the story goes on, Daisy becomes estranged from her daughter Bose, as Bose is beginning to understand more and more the culture of the village and becomes closer to Yemoja and Sherifat. Towards the end of the play, the villagers organize a march, for which Daisy gives Yemoja steps to teach to the rest of the women. It becomes clear to Yemoja at that point that western culture is not for them. Daisy and Ruth’s superior arrives to enlighten the women about her ideas of feminism. She is the one that will decide whether or not the movement has succeeded or not. When it is time for Yemoja to perform the dance, however, she and Sherifat perform one of the Idu rituals instead. Bose even joins in the dancing. Ruth falls and becomes extremely injured while Daisy is thrust into the middle of the action. The play ends here in a beautifully tragic scene as Ruth chokes to death while the rest of the villagers celebrate having revitalized their culture. Tess Onwueme’s play was delightfully written and captivating to any audience. The story was intriguing and definitely matched it’s title. Now I see that, Tell It To Women, is a statement on how the women of the village are always being told to do or be something. Whether it is by Daisy and Ruth or by their husbands, the women never really find their own voice until the very end. We see in the first movement, Sherifat telling the chorus of women that being a wife is â€Å"meaning that a wife deserves to be treated like a daughter and not something that you possess. † Yet, throughout much of the story, we see the women being treated like servants and as subhuman to Daisy and Ruth, the village men, and western civilization as a whole. However, I believe that even as a woman, the author was at times, very objective in her portrayal of feminism. She was able to write a play that showed both the positives and negatives of modernism, while advancing the ideals of traditionalism. She does all this without losing sight of what is most important to women of a small village like that. At one part she even has Ruth say â€Å"these rural women are very gullible, you know. All you need to do is make them feel they are important†¦ we need them anyway, maybe even more than they need us. † The author is commenting here on the passive-aggressive attempts of Daisy and Ruth but also shows that the village women do not actually need to be modernized. Perhaps here, the author is a little biased because she is making Daisy and Ruth out to be selfish and slightly cruel. To a western reader, the play was not very easy to read. The names of the villagers were at times tongue tying and I found myself changing opinions about a character because I in fact, thought they were another. Onwueme also does not really explain the native African dialect and proverbial expressions that are used, which was slightly confusing as well. Many play-writes include footnotes at the bottom of the page to explain vernacular that is not known to the reader and that would have been very helpful here. That being said, the true meaning of the play was present the entire time. The clash of cultures and the lingering pains of colonialism in Africa come through wonderfully in the author’s interpretation. In one eloquent line we see that colonialism left its mark of the villagers. Sherifat says to Daisy that â€Å"it’s easier for those who inflict the pain on others to forget. † Tell It To Women, while at times was hard to follow, beautifully captured the struggle of traditionalism versus modernism and is a true mark of feminism. Overall, I thought that the play was well written and captivating. Even as a man, when sometimes it is hard to understand the desires of women, let alone women of another culture, I was able to grasp the true value of this play. It enlightened me about African culture and the roles of men and women in society. I believe Onwueme did a tremendous job in exposing the struggles of postcolonial Africa in an artful representation. A Critique of Tess Onwueme’s Tell It to Women. (2018, Nov 12).

Health Care and the Economy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Health Care and the Economy - Essay Example The fact brought out indicates that, even though, the unemployment numbers decrease, as ironical as it may sound, many people still lack jobs and in collaboration with that, people are unable to sustain themselves in health coverage matters. It is with no doubt that the health care sector is slowly declining because of recession, and this has not only made the medical coverage of many individuals to be at stake but has also driven many people to withdraw from vital medical insurance services, to save money for other uses. Inflation has become a major issue that is facing the American society especially when it comes to the prices of medicine. In News article done by Rosenthal (2014), states that there has been a significant increase of generic drug prices which has caught the users by surprise. She states that users of medicine such as digoxin have started looking for other options other than that, because one would encounter costs that range from $1000 which is too expensive (para 5). Medicine that is also necessary for the young children for example vaccines have gone up tremendously. It is true that other medicines can be used to treat the diseases, but the most recommended ones are ironically too expensive though their manufacture price is not high. Inflation of pharmaceutical drugs has left the people who earn below the average income and those who are unemployed, under bad conditions because they end up not buying the medicine that they need, so as to save up on their money. This shows that the tremendous increase in of prices is affecting not only the unemployed but also the employed because treatment is becoming too expensive for people to afford to leave a lot of people in debts if they purchase the drugs (Rooney, para 3). Treatment is also becoming expensive, and this has made many companies withdraw their medical covering benefits from their employees but not entirely.

Cloud-based information services Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Cloud-based information services - Coursework Example The cloud has changed this by allowing the same employees to work without the inconvenience and cost of additional hardware. This has the effect of increasing productivity which drives revenue up while pushing the cost down. Second is that allows many users to work with many applications and softwares without having the need to purchase individual apps and softwares in each workstation because it is already in the cloud where they can readily work without the added software. This empowers the employees because they are given access to data and information which would not have been possible before again allowing greater productivity in the organization. Cloud also facilitates sharing of information which is critical among teams working in big projects. It cuts the time of sending and sharing it through the traditional methods of emails and is more secure than using file sharing

Chinese politics and government Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Chinese politics and government - Essay Example Key characteristics of the Leninist-Marxist Influence on the Chinese government include: 1. Inevitable goals and Philosophical absolutism. The Chinese communist regime claims to possess universal and absolute truth (Guo 110). Marx’s dialectic and historical materialism are the main source of the communist party’s declaration of inevitable goals and universal truths. 2. The communist party’s Leninist party-state official, paramount and exclusive ideology that serves to justify the CPC’s political actions and goals. (Guo 91-108) Confucianism The main philosophical base that shapes the traditional Chinese political history and culture is Confucianism. It is a philosophy that can arguably be described as being hostile to individualism and any autonomy on the part of the individual; instead it encourages the individual to make self sacrifices on behalf of the state. This is considered to be the highest ideal of citizenship (Guo 47-56). Confucianism started domi nating Chinese thought shortly after 200 BCE and it was generally the main Chinese orthodox ideology for a period of over 2000 years before 1911. Despite the changes to the social and political structure imposed by the communist government, many Confucian ideas still remain and play a prime role in influencing Modern China’s main political culture (Guo 47-56). Influence of Russian Communism The inspiration for the formation of the Chinese Communist Party (CPP) came from the Russian Revolt. The party was formed by Li Dazhao and Chen Duxiu in June 1921. Mao Zedong quickly became the most important member of the newly formed CPP and he adapted ideas that Lenin had used to achieve a successful revolution in Russian in the year 1917 (Guo 59-62). The May 4th Movement Due to the influence of the Chinese October Revolution, the May 4th Movement quickly came. The movement sprang up on May 4th 1919 and was in protest of the government’s perceived feeble reaction to the Treaty of Versailles; this is especially in the light of the Shandong problem. The movement had anti-feudal and anti-imperialist principles and set the stage for the continuous funding of the Communist Party of China. This is as a result of Marxism-Leninism ideologies linking themselves with the ongoing revolutionary practices of the people of China. Effect of Foreign Invasion and Historical Trauma The Communist Chinese government adopted the principle of â€Å"taking what is best† from the outside world during the 19th and 20th centuries. This was done in an effort to import only the positive things from the Western world while keeping out of China all the influences that they perceived as having a humiliating or weakening effect on China. This was especially manifested between 1946 and the late 1970s when mainland China was nearly closed to much of the outside world. The negative feelings that China derived from its foreign contact are still evident and linger under the surface in m odern day China. Similarities and Differences in Organization, Ideology and Power in Contemporary and Traditional China. Throughout the history of China, there has been a continuous emphasis centered on the maintaining and creation of order via the establishment of a benevolent authority that is usually perceived as playing what is considered to be a central role in

E Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

E Business - Essay Example This report will focus some major e-business concern that the Sage administration can use to assess the ROI on e-business implementation. The report will also focus various aspects of the business that will have a positive impact on adapting the suggested e-business model. Putting it simple Dave (2009, p. 4) states, â€Å"E-business has introduced new opportunities for small and large organizations to compete in the global market place.† The trend of using information in getting the competitive advantage is getting more and more acceptability by intelligent business managers. In a fast pace business environment today the intelligent use of information can provide an edge in decision making process. Business profitability heavily relies on the decisions that the management has to takes in nick of time. A good decision can bring more business to the company and a bad decision can play havoc with the business. The sell-side of boutique business has special concern for ensuring an d maximizing its item display management. Moreover, the emerging trends in fashion industry can have a very positive impact on decision making process. The increasing number of young online users is of special interest for boutique business as it can promote its business objectives rather easily by engaging this lot. Dave (2009, p. 4) has also pointed out this when he states, â€Å"In 2006, the global number of internet users passed 1 billion for the first time and in many countries over half the adult population is online.† The e-business model is a complete solution. It includes several internal and external system modules to cover the business operations. The internal system modules such as Human Resource Management (HRM), Finance, Stock Control or Inventory Management, Customer Relationship Management (CRM), Supply Chain Management (SCM) etc and the external system modules such as Customer Care Management, Display Services, Orders Management, Trends Management System etc. form part of this e-business model. These internal and external systems are part of Knowledge Management (KM) system which provides decision support to the managers. Wei et. al.(2011, p. 235) has pointed out the use of this KM model, â€Å"By support of basic system modules, perfect KM could finish the process to collect, arrange, spread and apply the knowledge.† The e-business model for boutique is supposed to provide decision support through focused and targeted information for sell and buy side operations of the business. Some basic features and recommendations of such KM system are outlined in the following lines; (a) The system development phases should be properly outlined and a strict timeline should be followed for gradual migration on e-business information systems. (b) Priority should be assigned to the modules which have a direct impact on business growth. (c) E-sell (the selling side of the e-business) must offer the convenience that can move the customer to e-bu siness and customer should find it easy, effective and rapid to purchase goods online then coming all the way to boutique outlets. (d) E-sell order placement should be very convenient and proper feedback mechanism should be in place to keep close contact with the customer. (e) The objective of facilitating customer should remain the top priority of e-sell system and it functional aspect should not cause delay. (f) The customer time engagement should be minimized. (g) The minimal input required forms

Corn-based Ethanol Production Thesis Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4250 words

Corn-based Ethanol Production - Thesis Example Theoretical framework The study is conducted in the theoretical premise of macroeconomics among other sub-theoretical domains of significant proximity to the objectives and focus concept of this study. . The premise provides the theoretical components that illuminate an understanding of how economic and macroeconomic policies and factors affect the fuel, food production and distribution dynamics. The theoretical framework also presents macroeconomics analysis and inference tools that will help in the establishment of the 'real world' effects of the production of corn-based ethanol on the price of corn. Definitions of Terms Ethanol Ethanol; is also called ethyl alcohol or pure alcohol is a flammable and colorless liquid which is categorised as a psychoactive drug. In common organic chemistry notation ethanol is abbreviated as EtOh. Hayashi, Fumio (2007) states that ethanol is a pure-chain alcohol with molecular formula C2H5OH. Ethanol fuel is ethyl alcohol which constitutes the same kind of alcohol that is contained in alcoholic beverages. Ethanol can be used as fuel biofuel like gasoline. This kind can be produced from common crops such as corn and sugar cane. Ethanol is a growing source of renewable energy alterative to gasoline. Biofuels Biofuel is a term used to refer to solid, liquid or gas fuel that has been produced from biological or organic material. The kind is differentiated from the fossils fuels which are drawn from long metamorphosed biological material. "From a theoretical perspective Biofuels can be made from any biological carbon source" (Hayashi, Fumio 2007). The commonly used sources of biofuels nonetheless are photosynthetic plants. Commodity Markets Commodity... This research exercise is not being conducted in a vacuum. The research exercise fits into a broad body of knowledge which has had numerous contributions from various scholars, researchers, professionals and students who have carried similar or related research exercises. Also; the scope and objectives of this research endeavor occur within related and implied theoretical, ideological and philosophical frameworks which largely influence the disciplines of business. As such the researcher is spurred to consider the multiple contributions relevant and related to this research endeavor. The researcher will present a literature review conducted in locating the object of this study within the broader confines of the bodies of knowledge in focus. The thrust at accomplishing set goals in pursuing the ’green world’ philosophy and theory much based on the need to curtail the towering global climate upheavals has seen the emphasises shift in policy in various industry and agriculture fronts. President George W. Bush has had the production of corn-based ethanol as part of the core of his energy policy. This has brought in some merits and demerits. The resonating concern is that is that the emphasis on corn based ethanol production has adverse impact on the entirety of the national and international agriculture sector. More so the thrust on the production of corn-based ethanol has been the part of the root causes of the escalating food prices.

Memo and sales letter Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Memo and sales letter - Assignment Example I urge that you To employ humanity in dealing with the issue. I also would like to take you back to an issue that occurred 2 months ago where Jane Sanders, another employee, was forced out of her parking space by male employees under threats of physical abuse. The company appeared not to accord the occurrence the seriousness it deserves. Although the male employees have been reprimanded, I feel that was not at all due appeasement to the harassed employee. Furthermore, Mrs. Sanders did assert repeatedly that some of the male employees in the incident in question have made inappropriate passes at her in the past. This brings the focal point of that particular case not only to gender inequality but also sexual harassment. I would like to remind the company of the country’s constitutional provisions for gender sensitivity. The constitution provides that female members of the workforce be treated in a just and fair manner as the male members of the workforce. An oversight of this is therefore liable to legal complaint. It is only after this assertion is taken into account that the situation will be remedied. An assurance from the Human Resource department that the issues above will be handled with the utmost solemnity and reassurance of our safety in the workplace will go a long way to instill change. This would be the first, among many steps to remedy the crisis. Our company is extremely appreciative of the time that we have been able to serve you. We are honored that you have chosen us as your product provider. The last time you wrote to us you had a challenge with the gear that you purchased. I believe that the issue was well taken care of by our repair and maintenance team. Kindly get back to us and inform us whether you were fulfilled with the results. Our customer service team will review your recommendations depending on your response. We take great pride in being able to learn from our most valued and loyal

Museum art techniques Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Museum art techniques - Essay Example The viewing audience enjoys the history of origin of man and major social transitions that has characterized various generations. In regard to Alpers’ opinion, art is an integral part of human history. Duncan rekindles the past memories on the ancient world and the series of changes that characterize the society through generations. In other words, some of the past cultural aspects of various communities are represented by museum artifacts. Comparative analysis of ancient civilization and modern culture between the west and the rest of the world generally offers a ritual connectivity. In essence, Museums constitutes structures that are associated with past cultural norms and special building in which artifacts and records are kept. Although viewing is done by people of diverse socio-economic and political backgrounds, the aim is always homogeneous. This mostly lies in the curious nature of man to explore and experience diversity of humanity. The concept of museum entails various issues that include religious artifacts, communal art and connotation of

Racism as defined by mass media Essay Example for Free

Racism as defined by mass media Essay Oscar H. Gandy Jr. defines racism as, the process of exercising power or seeking to exercise power with regard to people defined by identifying them as a member of a particular race.1 Racism and race stem from the identity one puts onto certain groups of individuals based on their colour. The identity that one forms is acquired from a number of places including parents, religion, school, government and, on todays youth, mainly mass media such as television and music. In this essay one will focus on the influence that mass media has on our identity position of race. It is obvious that all forms of print and electronic media, from news media to books, films, television, radio, and all other forms of media collectively represent our image of ourselves. 2 The focus for the purpose of this essay will be on news media, television and music, being the most influential forms of media, while focusing on the youth of today, being the easiest to influence. News media has great power in influencing how people identify themselves by how they are represented on the. The stereotypes that television has shown, are viewed by many young individuals of colour, and are portraying how their race is viewed upon among society. Music has the greatest influence on young African-Americans, which view their idols as those shown in music videos. Mass media in a collective form, although may represent individuals of colour, influence the viewers of colour, how they should distinguish themselves.3 Mass media reflects what we think we are and influences what we think we should be. Beginning with the news from a nation wide news station to a local newspaper or news program. News media has the ability to stereotype and categorize people of colour, by using words such as minority. Never are minorities not called minorities even when they take up one third of Canadas population. Along with categorizing people of colour with the use of minority, they include words like crime, poverty and others that stereotype people of colour.4 This is viewed by young non-whites, which make them believe that this how things are and how they should be. The media now have the capability to alter our perceptions of ourselves, and change the way we live our lives. Young African-Americans, who view the news and see how their race is being represented, may possibly alter their perceptions of their lives and view themselves as criminals, when the news relates their race to criminal acts. The rarity of recognition a person of colour receives in the scholastic proceedings, is viewed among the youth of today. Of course there must be someone, somewhere of colour, writing or saying something that should be listened to, or producing art that should be seen, heard, approached with intellectual seriousness.5 This failure to recognize individuals of colour will influence youth not to pursue intellectual readings and to learn educational subjects, which are not represented by their race. In Postmodern Blackness by Bell Hooks, its states, This discourse created the idea of the primitive and promoted the notion of an authentic experience, seeing as natural those expressions of black life, which conformed to a pre-existing pattern or stereotype.6 In the news when we see a person of colour committing a crime of some sort, we look at it as being a normal act and this how things are in our society. Whites and non-whites alike look upon the news and make assumptions about how they should act, what their values should be, and how they live their daily lives. The youth of today will be the first generation to come of age in a North America where racial minorities are the numeric majority. The future of diversity will depend upon a childs perception on the position of racial identities. The youth of all races will have to expand their conception of race and race relations in ways their parents never knew. Is it important for children to see people of their own race on television? Children of colour are most likely to think so. Caucasian and African-American children can say they see characters of their race on television while Latino and Asian children are much less likely to see their race represented.7 It is the way they are represented which will affect the influence television will have on children. While some television stations do show diversification in their programming such as OMNI, they are not providing a realistic viewpoint. When a Caucasian character on television is poor, lazy and unintelligent, the show is considered to be comical, such as The Simpsons or Married with Children, and not taken as realistic. Whereas, when they are successful, rich and intellectual, the show is considered to be dramatic and viewed as being realistic. African-American characters are rarely presented as being poor, lazy and unintelligent, but always rich and successful, such as The Cosby Show and Fresh Prince of Bel-Air, and are always meant to be comical, but never taken seriously or realistically. Shows like these influence African-American children that their race is not taken seriously and are viewed as being humorous. This would affect a young African-Americans thinking is a sense that he is suppose to be a comedian. Many television shows give minority actors, minority roles. Taxi drives in most sitcoms are always non-white, grocery store workers and gas station attendants are always non-white, in shows such as Seinfeld. Although these sitcoms are not suppose to be taken realistic, young individuals of all races are more likely to associate positive characteristics with Caucasian characters and negative characteristics with minority characters. Sitcoms and other television shows have the ability to alter these perceptions, but continue to stereotype minorities. Still focusing upon the children of today, because they have great faith in the medias power and its potential to influence them. Media can teach children that people of their race are important.8 If television had shows, which evenly distributed the role of characters to all races featuring equality and diversification, they can accomplish sending a message of the importance of all races. Children look to the media for role models and imitate their favourite character. From the way they dress, talk, style their hair to following the messages sent by their characters. From the haircuts of the women on Friends to the baggy fashions of the hip-hop scene, the influence of media on todays children can be seen everywhere. Beyond superficial messages about style and appearance, children are getting more formative messages from the media. The characters they admire and the news stories they watch send both subtle and explicit signals about their values, their families and their race.9 This shows the importance of the messages being sent out by mass media and the importance of different characters and the characteristics they portray. Many African-American children will look to African-American characters for idols and will portray them. In The New Cultural Politics of Difference, Cornel West states, The widespread modern European denial of the intelligence, ability, beauty, and character of people of colour puts a tremendous burden on critics and artists of colour to prove themselves in light of norms and models set by White elites whose own heritage devalued and dehumanized them. In short, in the court of criticism and art or any matters regarding the life of the mind people of colour are guilty (i.e., not expected to meet standards of intellectual achievement) until proven innocent (i.e., acceptable to us).10 The image that people of colour are guilty until proven innocent illustrates to young individuals of all colours that because of this, people of colour are not as intellectual as Caucasians. In Postmodern Blackness, Bell Hooks states, It is no accident that rap has usurped the primary position of rhythm and blues music among young black folks as the most desired sound or that it began as a form of testimony for the underclass. It has enabled underclass black youth to develop a critical voice as a group of young black men told me, a common literacy. Rap projects a critical voice, explaining, demanding, urging.11 To all young African-Americans, this message is saying that their only voice, their only outlet, is through entertainment in the way of music. They are not enough African-American writers to allow them to consider an outlet that is scholarly. They feel they have to portray the image that is being sent to them through rappers and musicians alike to dress, talk, walk and act the way these rappers say they do, in drinking, smoking and heading for drugs. Young African-American men that watch rap videos, sports, movies and may see many men of their race in this forms of media, but the image they represent is that if you cannot make it as a rapper, actor or athlete, youll never become wealthy and successful. Rarely are there images on news media about wealthy African-American businessmen unless its criminal; rarely are business shows on television shown where black businessmen are the portrayal of the show. They may be a rarity, but should not be and ought to be discussed in business matters. Looking at music for influences, from Stanford, Kathleen OToole puts in best, Music alters and intensifies their moods, furnishes much of their slang, dominates their conversations and provides the ambiance at their social gatherings. Music styles define the crowds and cliques they run in. Music personalities provide models for how they act and dress.12 This states that music alters our perception of ourselves and what we should be and how we should act. Our identity is affected and changed according to music videos. Rap videos show African-American singers as doing drinking, smoking, having naked women around them and treating them inappropriately and this is how African-American youth thinks they should act, instead musicians need to send an suitable message out to the youth of today. Also, other races will feel that this is how African-Americans act and will treat them accordingly. Many African-American rappers have lyrics, which are against authority and this influences others alike to perceive the same thoughts. Everyone of every race has an identity theyd like to call their own. But this identity is usually not their own and influenced by many sources, especially mass media. From music to television to news media, the influence these have on the children of today is immense. Music, television and news media, collectively with other mass medium, have the ability to alter ones perceptions of oneself and the characteristics of others. Race has always been a touchy subject because of its sensitivity and although I am a person of colour, I may have made some stereotypical comments of both whites and non-whites, but I did so only with the intent of making my point. Mass media reflects what we think we are and influences what we think we should be. Bibliography Colorado State University Cooperative Extension. Im Looking for Me: Childrens Perception of Race and Class in the Media. Family Matters Newsletter. October 2002. http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/fammatrs/fm0210e.html (20 Nov. 2003). Gandy, Jr., Oscar H. On Race and the Political Economy of Communication. Art Survival: An Internet Review. Issue 2, Volume 1.http://www.artandsurvival.com/issue2-vol1/dialogue/dialogue_contents.htm (23 Nov. 2003). Hall, Stuart. Cultural Identity and Diaspora. Colonial Discourse and Post-Colonial Theory. Patrick William Laura Chrisman, eds., Pp. 392-403, (c) Columbia University, 1994. Hooks, Bell. Postmodern Blackness. Yearning: Race, Gender, and Cultural Politics, Pp. 23-31, (c) Between the Lines, 1990. Lauder, Matthew. News Media Perpetuation of Racism in a Democratic Society. Cancon: Articles. http://www.canadiancontent.ca/articles/071502mediaracism.html (21 Nov. 2003). OToole, Kathleen. Rock Roll: Does it Influence Teens Behavior? Stanford Report [Online]. 1997. http://www.stanford.edu/dept/news/report/news/november12/ teenmusic.html (20 Nov. 2003). Third Way Cafà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½. Children and Race in the Media. Racism: The Public Face. Beyond the News. http://www.thirdway.com/BTN/racism/public/children.asp (21 Nov. 2003). West, Cornel. The New Cultural Politics of Difference. The Cultural Reader. 2nded. Simon during, ed., Pp. 256-267, (c) Routledge, 1999. 1 Gandy, Jr., Oscar H. On Race and the Political Economy of Communication. Art Survival: An Internet Review. Issue 2, Volume 1.http://www.artandsurvival.com/issue2-vol1/dialogue/dialogue_contents.htm (23 Nov. 2003). 2 Third Way Cafà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½. Children and Race in the Media. Racism: The Public Face. Beyond the News. http://www.thirdway.com/BTN/racism/public/children.asp (21 Nov. 2003). 3 Colorado State University Cooperative Extension. Im Looking for Me: Childrens Perception of Race and Class in the Media. Family Matters Newsletter. October 2002. http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/fammatrs/fm0210e.html (20 Nov. 2003). 4 Lauder, Matthew. News Media Perpetuation of Racism in a Democratic Society. Cancon: Articles. http://www.canadiancontent.ca/articles/071502mediaracism.html (21 Nov. 2003). 5 Hooks, Bell. Postmodern Blackness. Yearning: Race, Gender, and Cultural Politics, Pp. 24, (c) Between the Lines, 1990. 6 Ibid. 26. 7 Colorado State University Cooperative Extension. Im Looking for Me: Childrens Perception of Race and Class in the Media. Family Matters Newsletter. October 2002. http://www.ext.colostate.edu/pubs/fammatrs/fm0210e.html (20 Nov. 2003). 8 Third Way Cafà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½. 9 Ibid 10 West, Cornel. The New Cultural Politics of Difference. The Cultural Reader. 2nded. Simon during, ed., Pp. 256-267, (c) Routledge, 1999. 11 Hooks, Bell. 27. 12 OToole, Kathleen. Rock Roll: Does it Influence Teens Behavior? Stanford Report [Online]. 1997. http://www.stanford.edu/dept/news/report/news/november12/ teenmusic.html (20 Nov. 2003).

Benefits Of Scenario Planning And Systems Thinking Business Essay

Benefits Of Scenario Planning And Systems Thinking Business Essay Scenario Planning Introduction Today, organizations are increasingly affected by the growing uncertainty from the macro-environment.. In recent years, it is very common to see some organizations suddenly get into a recession or even fall into crisis because of some changes of external factors. These companies have one thing in common, that is, they all fail to take into account the future. And now a powerful tool which used largely by businesses to solve this problem Scenario planning. It is a tool which can help organizations think about the future , grasp the trend to look for new profit growth in an uncertain future, help decision makers reshape the mental models and find the correct direction of the future.( Bill and Ian , 2008 ) In order to make us have a better understanding of scenario planning, the following issues will be discussed: Benefits of Scenario Planning, difficulties of implementing scenario planning, PEST Analysis over the period to 2030, risks and opportunities organisations will face and the action plans. Benefits of Scenario Planning Scenario planning is a tool of strategic decision-making that does not focus on accurately predicting the future, but is a process that creates a number of possible futures that are credible yet uncertain (Schoemaker, 1995). There is no doubt that companies can gain benefit from scenario planning, and here are the several strengths of scenario planning. Systems thinking By using the scenario planning manager can have a systems thinking. Like smart chess players always think clearly and have a variety of possible scenarios in the next steps , the scenario planning can provide manager a preventive mechanism , before problems occur, manager can deduction the possible scenarios based on a series of logic and empirical facts through the business acumen and the immediate perception, seeing trends in the evolution of things ,shape and the impact of changing trends in the structure. (Mbalib,2007) In addition,through scenario planning, managers can use systems thinking, take into account the various factors which they think will influence the decision to make a overall well-depth analysis, and to avoid narrow personal bias. The optimal allocation of resources Using the scenario planning , companies can predict the possible future scenarios, so that managers can be more aware of the external environment and their companys status and future directions therefore they can match internal resources to external environment to allocate the resources more effective and rational. Risk Reduction: Scenario planning help us understand today better by imagining tomorrow , it is good to help organizations deal with the future uncertainties by aware of the weak signals and let them get better prepare to handle new situations to keep business alive and flourishing. Difficulties of implementing Scenario planning Scenario planning as a business tool which is aim to help organizations make right decisions, reduce risk, save time and maximum profit. Though the aims of organisations who adopt the scenario planning are the same, there are many inherent difficulties for organisations of differing sizes in implementing Scenario Planning for the first time. Usually, all the company will faced with these difficulties: Cost The costs of scenario planning really depends on the numerous variables such as the organization size, timeframe of the scenarios, teams and those partnering in the strategic planning process and methods of analysis and data collection involved in the planning process Time To make an accurate predictions of scenario is very time-consuming. Usually, scenario planning could take around 6 to 12 months for some organizations engaging in depth, multi scenario planning. Data and information from different sources have to be collected and interpreted which makes scenario building even more time-consuming. Resources Scenario planning need to use various resources, in addition to money, with the propose of forming a scenario management team it need the external experts to cooperate with internal staff, whats more, it also need the companys data resources from different departments. Small companies For a small business, such as self-employed and partnerships, they generally just have a short-term plan with the goal of maximum profits, and usually make decisions relatively easy just simply focus on cost, price and output decisions. As for a small business, they has few competitors and the external business environment is relatively stable and certain which has little effect on their business. Since the first time implementing scenario planning, companies may not well aware of the real needs of the company, though they do not need a complex scenario planning, do not need to have such high sensitivity of external influences, do not need such resources, technical staff they may still spend too much time and money on it which will increase the costs of company and may not take advantage from scenario planning. Large, multinational companies With the turbulent external business environment and the increasing competition it is necessary for large, multinational companies to adopt Scenario Planning in order to survive and prosper. Although large companies have abundant resources or access to the necessary resources in terms of expertise, time and money, there are still many inherent difficulties for organisations in implementing Scenario Planning for the first time. How far ahead should organizations predict The time horizon for scenarios must be short enough to create scenarios that are probable, but long enough for us to imagine that important changes with an impact on the future business can take place. (Lindgren, M. and Bandhold, H. (2003))How long should organizations take into consider ,it is a vital issue. With the accelerated pace of world change, the further predict, the more complex. More aspect need to consider, and the predictions are less accurate. However, if the prediction of the time too close it will not achieve any effect. How many scenarios For a company it is not necessary to say that the more scenario planning the better future of the company and of course, it make no sense of the company development if company has too little scenario planning. All the scenario planning need to prepare action plans and corresponding measures, have too much scenario planning not only take times and waste money but also may increase the operational costs of the company, however, if with few scenario planning it cannot help company predict the future to avoiding the risks PEST Analysis over the period to 2030 Today, due to increasing concern for sustainable development, global economic competition and technological advances ,change is happening faster than before which increased the business uncertainty . For this reason, scenario planning has been unprecedented attention. In order to make the correct prediction of what might happen in the business environment over the period to 2030 , it is important to have an understanding of what are the key drivers of external change .The best way to do this is to monitor and analyze trends and scan the current environment. There is a particularly useful tool -PEST (Political, Economic, Social, Technological) analysis can help organization to identify the different forces. http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/tools/scenario-planning/trend-analysis Political: BRICK adding new memberSouth Africa. BRICK expanded five-member bloc known as the BRICS, which groups Brazil, Russia, India, China, and, for the first time, South Africa. (Mainichi,2011) The expansion of the BRICS have a great impact in the western business environment over the period to 2030. Since BRIC countries are facing a great historical opportunity for development, their development will bring a significant impact on the global economy and global structure .According to the global economic report of Goldman Sachs: (Dreaming with BRICs: The Path to 2050), BRICs will guide the world economy in 2050 coquettish. And BRIC has been trying to expand its influence which make the western countries have to be careful to look at the next step plans of these emerging economies . In addition, more and more international investors are divide their asset allocation according to the BRIC. And ONeill, chief economist at Goldman Sachs, said the BRIC will catch-up G6 in the next 20 years. Economic Globalization It can be said that the developed countries led economic globalization as they master the worlds most advanced productivity and technology. However, according to the annual World Economic Report which published by The World Bank reported that by 2030, the global economy will grow from 35 trillion U.S. dollars in 2005 to expand to 72 trillion dollars, the share of total global output of developing countries will from the current 1 / 5 to nearly 1 / 3 and the share of the global purchasing power will occupy more than 1 / 2. Report also highlighted a general underlying trend: in the next 25 years, developing countries will be a major force in global economic growth. (Sujingxiang,2006) Over the period to 2030, with the spread of new technologies such as the Internet, developing countries will go from the periphery to the center of the world economy, and gradually grow into an important engine for global growth, however , the developed countries, the influence on globalization is weakening , some organization and workers of developed countries were impact by the developing countries, particularly in emerging economies competition. Manufacturing and other traditional industries were in trouble which increased unemployment and the downward pressure on wages.(Haoran, 2009) Social Change in consumer behavior pattern As technology developed, people gradually changed their consumption habits, staying at home, online shopping has become a way of life that are interested by Internet users. The eMarketer estimates that over 68% of UK web users ages 14 and older will buy online at least once per month in 2011-a total of more than 27 million people. It estimated that between 2009 and 2014 he size of the UK online shoppers will continues to grow, penetration rate of online shopping users in 2014 will reach 71.1%. And the UK online shoppers will continue to increase in the future. http://www.emarketer.com/Report.aspx?code=emarketer_2000779 Since more and more people prefer online shopping and the number of people seems keep increasing, it can be said the online shopping represent the future direction of business. Face with this huge online consumer groups, organizations should seize the opportunity to develop the online shopping channels. However, The online shopping will change the business environment over the period to 2030. It will change the competitive basis and competitive approach among the organizations. E-commerce is information-based, the level of the access to information determine the market competitiveness of organizations . Technological Web 4.0 is transforming the Internet landscape according to Spivaks predictions, by the year of 2031 the next generation of internetWeb 4.0 will appear which further convergence of the online and physical world http://www.zmogo.com/web/web-40trip-down-the-rabbit-hole-or-brave-new-world/ Technology innovation will also influence the business environment during the period of now to 2030, With Web 4.0 which increase speeds and bandwidth, coupled with high-speed wireless access will enable information exchange on an unprecedented level. Risks Competition: The expansion of the BRICS and the increasing globalization will lead to more competitors from developing countries such as China and India. Similarly, with the increasing number of Internet users and network development, e-commerce appears which changes the business environment, reducing the trade entry barriers, blurred industry boundaries and expanding the scope for competition. Information management The improvement of network technology will allows us to enter an information age, as the network is free and open which will make the global information more transparent, everyone can master the competitors product information and marketing dynamics. Opportunities E-commerce E-commerce can significantly reduce inventory costs. Compared with the traditional commerce, E-commerce with high speed and fewer links, whats more, it does not have pressure on inventory, a well-run electronic store can even be zero inventory, no bear any pressure on the stock which will save a considerable costs. Internet Over the past 20 years the revolution of Internet has changed business model, and similarly, in the next 20 years, the networks development will bring new opportunities to the organization. With increasing speeds and bandwidth, coupled with high-speed wireless access will enable information exchange on an unprecedented level organizations can use business information effectively to fully serve their customers and attract more customers. Whats more, they can also open up international markets and change production environment in order to gain more profits. Action plans Since We have listed the key factors of the changes of macro environment in the next 20 years and also found out the opportunities and risks which company may experience in the future .In order to survive and make the company prosperous, companies should make some corresponding countermeasures. Improve management systems With the next generation of internetWeb 4.0 appears and the increasing online shoppers , organizations should improve their management systems in order to catch the pace of business. Organization can adopt the commodity cloud computing and during the production process , using the computer-aided design and manufacturing (CAD / CAM) based on the management information systems (MIS) to establish the computer integrated manufacturing system (CIMS).Using these new manage methods to combine the production technology and information technology together and to upgrade the traditional mode of management system. (Shizhenxi,2010) Focus on global strategy It can be said that with the economic globalization, the increasing integration of world economy is becoming an unstoppable trend, the world is entering an era of borderless competition. Only focus on the domestic market is not enough, organization should develop foreign markets. Organization should develop and allocate resources in global in order to survive and prosper in the future.Organization can gradually develop and allocate the capital, labor, technology, resource from domestic to global. Distribute the capital according to different regions to reduce financial risks, establish appropriate technology development centre in different regions to gain the local advantage in order to enhance their technology competitiveness . Conclusion Lindgren, M. and Bandhold, H. (2003) Scenario Planning; The Link Between Future and Strategy. Basingstoke, Palgrave MacMillan. (pg53) Scenario Planning Handbook Bill Ralston)à £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¼Ã…  Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ±Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ ·Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¨Ã‚ Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ °Ã¢â‚¬ Ãƒ ©Ã¢â€š ¬Ã…  (Ian Wilson2008 http://product.china-pub.com/826843ref=browse 2007, http://wiki.mbalib.com/wiki/%E6%83%85%E6%99%AF%E8%A7%84%E5%88%92 http://www.jiscinfonet.ac.uk/tools/scenario-planning/trend-analysis (Mainichi,2011) http://mdn.mainichi.jp/mdnnews/business/news/20110414p2g00m0bu044000c.html (Sujingxiang,2006) http://news.xinhuanet.com/world/2006-12/22/content_5518332.htm (Haoran, 2009) http://www.zh09.com/lunwen/jjx/gjjj/200912/373158.html (à ¥Ã‚ ¯Ã‚ ¹Ãƒ §Ã‚ »Ã‚ Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ µÃ… ½Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¨Ãƒ §Ã‚ Ã†â€™Ãƒ ¥Ã…’-à §Ã… ¡Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬  Ã‚ Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ Ãƒ ¨Ã¢â€š ¬Ã†â€™) 14 Web 4.0,Trip Down the Rabbit Hole or Brave New World?, zmogo.com: http://www.zmogo.com/web/web-40trip-down-the-rabbit-hole-or-brave-new-world. Accessed 7th June 2009. (Shizhenxi,2010) http://www.fenghuang163.com/blog/article/327.html http://www.chinact.org.cn/Html/200672714031-1.html http://www.facebook.com/note.php?note_id=192147837462567 http://blog.sina.com.cn/s/blog_65e8dd750100ny4h.html(à ¥Ã‚ Ã… ¡Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ®Ã‚ ¢) Schoemaker, P.J.H. and van der Heijden K. (1992) Integrating Scenarios into Strategic Planning at Royal Dutch/Shell, Planning Review. Vol. 20 (3): pp.41-46.

Evolution of Virulence in the Ebola Virus

Evolution of Virulence in the Ebola Virus The Ebola virus is a member of the Filoviridae family of virus and is the pathogen responsible for Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever, an emerging disease that appears in infrequent epidemic outbreaks mainly in sub-Saharan Africa. The Ebola Virus is composed of several distinct subspecies, ranging from the extremely virulent Ebola Sudan and Ebola Zaire Viruses to the asymptomatic (in humans) Ebola Reston. Many outbreaks of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever display mortality rates approaching 90%. Application of evolutionary concepts of disease and virulence evolution can be used to help explain this high level of virulence. Another important factor is the possible presence of less virulent outbreaks of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever that go unreported due to small scale and lack of characteristic virulence A further understanding of the selective mechanisms behind virulence may suggest strategies to impose selection for less virulent strains of the virus and to develop possible vaccines, thus helping to curb th e deadly effect of Ebola outbreaks. The Filovirus family contains the Ebola Virus genus and the closely related Marburg Virus. Both of these genera are known to cause extremely dangerous hemorrhagic fever type illnesses. These Viruses are contain a single strand of negative RNA and typically measure 1400 nm in length with a diameter of approximately 80 nm. The various species of Ebola virus sporadically infect both human and non-human primates, causing Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever. Recent evidence suggests that the virus may have a natural reservoir in various bat populations. The virus sporadically jumps from this natural host species (in which it is avirulent) to host species such as chimpanzees, macaques, gorillas and humans where it typically exhibits high virulence. The mechanisms of this transition and the role of reservoir hosts is poorly understood at present (Leroy et al 2005) The Virus is transferred through direct contact with infected bodily fluids, most frequently by means of direct contact with an infected individual. Contaminated medical implements can also spread the infection in medical settings, especially during early stages when an epidemic has not yet been fully realized. In many of the early outbreaks this was a major means of transmission, due to the presence of the virus and nature of its transmission being poorly understood. Local funerary customs also contributed to the spread of the disease. Isolation of infectious patients, proper disposal of contaminated remains and excreta and use of efficient sanitation and barrier nursing techniques can effectively prevent transmission during an outbreak. It is important that these measures be implemented immediately upon suspicion of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever in order to minimize spread of the virus within the community (Ebola virus disease in southern Sudan 1983). Initial during initial stages of infection the Ebola virus selectively targets dendritic cells, monocytes and macrophages, which spread through the circulatory and lymphatic systems to the liver spleen and lymph nodes. From here the virus can efficiently spread throughout the body. The infected monocytes and macrophages also release massive amounts of cytokines, helping to trigger virus-induced shock by causing damage to the endothelial structures. Infected dendritic cells are prevented from releasing costimulatory cytokines necessary for the production of T-cells, preventing sufficient immune response to the infection (Aleksandrowicz et al 2008). Symptoms of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever usually manifest 2-21 days after infection. Initial symptoms include fever, weakness, aches in the muscles and joints, sore throat. These progress to rash, impaired liver and kidney function and in some cases both external and internal bleeding due to deterioration of the vascular lining (World Health Org anization). The massive release of cytokines and virus particles from monocytes and macrophages impairs the function of endothelial tissue, allowing it to become permeable to water and macromolecules (Aleksandrowicz et al 2008). Gastro-intestinal bleeding is a common symptom, and is frequently associated with lethal cases. (Ebola Haemorrhagic Fever in Zaire 1978) The First known outbreaks of the Ebola virus occurred nearly simultaneously in Zaire (modern Democratic Republic of the Congo) and Sudan in 1976. These outbreaks, although close both geographically and chronologically were caused by two distinct subspecies of the virus (Ebola Zaire and Ebola Sudan respectively). The Zaire outbreak was centered in the village of Yambuku and its environs. 318 cases were reported in this epidemic, of which 280 were fatal (mortality 88%). All cases in this epidemic were tied to either close contact with a confirmed case or receiving a parenteral injection at the local hospital (Ebola Haemorrhagic Fever in Zaire 1978). Early cases in the Sudan outbreak were textile workers from the town of Nzara. 151 of the 284 reported cases were fatal (mortality 53%) (Known Cases and Outbreaks of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever). Three years later, in August of 1979 another, smaller scale outbreak occurred in Nzara and the nearby town of Yambio, resulting in 34 cases, with 22 f atalities (65% mortality) (Center for Disease Control, 2006). Communities affected by these outbreaks share several characteristics. One of the most significant of these is the nature of available medical care. All were served by small, undersupplied and understaffed hospitals. Unsanitary conditions within these hospitals and the prevalence of family members carrying out day to day care for afflicted individuals being allowed the virus to spread quickly through the local population. The Yambuku hospital utilized five needles and syringes for prenatal, inpatient and outpatient wards, with little sterilization between uses. This fact alone almost ensured transition of the virus between patients in the hospital. Lack of barrier nursing practices also allowed high transmission to the staff (11 of the 17 medical staff died as a result of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever) and caregivers as well A high prevalence of infection was found amongst individuals present at funerals of deceased patients in all outbreaks. The reproductive success of a pathogen is dependent upon its ability to replicate itself and to infect new hosts by transfer of its propagules. Rapid replication can increase a pathogens chance of transference, but this requires a greater toll on the hosts system and is likely to lead to an increased chance of host mortality. Due to this, there is believed to be a natural correspondence between a pathogens growth rate and virulence. The relationship between these two factors is explained by the trade-off hypothesis of virulence evolution. This theory largely replaced the commonly accepted idea that a parasite or pathogen should evolve towards avirulence, but it not fully accepted. The avirulence theory assumed that a parasite low virulence would maximize a pathogens overall lifetime reproductive success by increasing the time of infection to nearly infinite limits. The reasoning behind this theory has been explained thusly: The parasite makes a profession out of living at its neighbours expenses and all its industry consists of exploiting it with economy, without putting its life in danger. It is like a poor person who needs help to survive, but who nevertheless does not kill its chicken in order to have the eggs (Van Beneden 1875). The frequent down trend in virulence from the time a pathogen is introduced to a novel population was offered as evidence for this theory. The trade-off theory developed when evolutionary ecologists began to question the avirulence theory. It proposes that there is a link between ease of transmission and virulence. According to this theory, virulence is an outgrowth of a rapid replication rate in the pathogen, which strains host resources and reduces host fitness (resulting in host mortality). The Trade-off theory links the variables of virulence, transmission and host recovery in a relationship summarized by the following mathematical model: (Alizon, Hurford, Mideo Van Baalen 2009) In the above equation R0 represents the pathogens baseline reproduction ratio, in this case a measure of relative fitness. The S value is the number of susceptible hosts within a population. ÃŽÂ ² represents rate of transmission, ÃŽÂ ± is the death rate in the host due to infection (virulence), ÃŽÂ ¼ stands for the natural death rate in the host population, and ÃŽÂ ³ is a factor representing the recovery rate from the infection. According to this model, any change in virulence, transmission rate or recovery rate will have an effect on the other two variables. A high transmission rate will typically go along with a high virulence and low recovery rate. The reproductive success of a pathogen comes from successfully balancing these variables to maximize R0 (Alizon et al). High Virulence will allow for high reproduction and transmission, but only up to a point. Natural selection should favor strains that are able to maximize this trade-off. Eventually, virulence can reach a l evel where the increased transmission is no longer balanced out by the risk of dying along with a host before being able to jump to a new one. This is especially true in isolated host populations or other conditions that limit horizontal transmission, which could possibly explain the low virulence and chronic nature of some infections. Virulence is typically defined as morbidity and mortality of the host organism as a result of parasite or pathogen activity. Measurements of a pathogens virulence are traditionally given in terms of parasite induced death rate (PIHD). This definition is suitable for a general discussion of a disease as it includes all deleterious effects on the host. A more specific and narrow definition is required in order to examine selective pressures on the evolution of virulence in a disease, however. The generalized definition, according to Ebert and Bull in their work on virulence evolution, fails to differentiate between virulences effects on host and pathogen fitness, and therefore fail to give an accurate assessment of selective pressure on the pathogens evolution. For this reason it is important to consider specific aspects of the host/pathogen system (such as means of transference, rate of pathogen growth, etc) before drawing conclusions about the selective pressures for increased or red uced virulence in the pathogen (Ebert Bull 2008). In the case of the Ebola virus and Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever virulence can be discussed in terms of host death. Unlike with some pathogens, death of the host does not immediately end transmission of the virus. Some studies indicate that the corpse can remain infectious for several days after death. Several epidemics have been traced to contact between the index case and the contaminated remains of a chimpanzee (Ivory Coast 1994, Gabon 1996, Gabon 1996-97) (Chart) and contaminated monkey meat may have played a role in the index case of the initial 1976 Zaire outbreak (Ebola Haemorrhagic Fever in Zaire 1978). Ebert and Bull define three general stages of evolution in a pathogen transferring to a novel host and the selective pressures involved in each. The first phase includes the initial interactions between a pathogen and the novel host. In some cases this infection is not capable of horizontal transfer between hosts in the novel population. Other situations involve short chains of secondary infection from the index infection. Infections in this phase are likely exposed to great selective pressures, as they are in an entirely new environment, one for which their genes may or may not be particularly suitable. Genes that may not have had a measureable fitness effect in the pathogens normal host environment can suddenly exert great selective pressure. Because of this there is frequently a great range of virulence expressed by different pathogens during this phase. The second phase occurs during the period when a pathogen has established a foothold within the novel population. It follows the epidemic infection model and increases rapidly within the population, because of this rapid growth it is possible for a pathogen to evolve rapidly in this phase. Selective pressure on the host can also be extreme in this phase. The second phase also applies when a mutation in a parasite that has already obtained equilibrium within a host population is significant enough that it gains a selective advantage over other strains and spreads rapidly. Ebert and Bulls third phase is reached when a pathogen has become firmly established within a host population. Pathogens in this phase are well adapted to the host, but will still experiences selective pressures due to host demographic and environmental changes. The Ebola virus, in human hosts, remains largely within the first phase, although it could be argued that it briefly enters the second phase on a local level during some outbreaks. It causes short lived epidemics when it does infect a human population, but fails to survive long term and become an endemic pathogen. During this initial stage the virus can be exposed to great selective pressure as it is in an unusual host. Evolutionary dynamics within an epidemic scenario, as proposed by Bolker et al, favor pathogens with a high growth and transference rates, and the high virulence that is associated with them, due to the large number of susceptible hosts in the novel population. This differs from a pathogen in later stages, which has reached dynamic equilibrium with the host. These situations tend to select for moderate virulence and longer duration of infection. (Bolker et al). A possible explanation for the extreme virulence in Ebola outbreaks may simply be reporting bias. Many of the early and milder symptoms of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever are quite similar to those of other diseases endemic to the region, such as malaria, and measles. Some outbreaks are actually mistaken for cases of other diseases until post-infection laboratory tests detect particles of an Ebola strain. A 1994 outbreak in gold mining camps in Gabon (52 cases, 60% mortality) was believed to be a yellow fever epidemic until almost a year after the last case. It is possible that less virulent strains of the virus are simply mistaken for other common infections, treated as such, and never reported (CHART). Ebola virus antibodies were detected in sera from 18% of adults in the 1979 Nzara outbreak who were not infected. This is evidence that It is likely that sporadic infection is more common than can be appreciated from these dramatic outbreaks, which probably represent the extreme of the inter action between man and the virus. (Baron et al). This fits in with the inherent virulence variance in phase one pathogens suggested by Ebert and Bull above. Other factors that can affect the evolution of virulence in a pathogen are host population density and ease of transmission. These factors are frequently interrelated, as both directly influence the number of susceptible hosts a pathogen is able to infect during its lifespan. A high density of susceptible hosts (such as when a pathogen is emerging in a novel host population) is likely to greatly increase greatly increase a pathogens reproductive success, and select for pathogens that can replicate quickly and take advantage of the abundant hosts. Likewise, easy transition from one host to the next also selects for pathogens that are able to rapidly replicate and seize the day, as it were. Both of these conditions, which favor pathogens with high growth rates, also favor high virulence in accordance with the Trade-off hypothesis (Ebert Bull 2008). The abovementioned concepts and principles fit in with epidemiological data from outbreaks of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever. Initial outbreaks of Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever took place within areas with a relatively high concentration of susceptible hosts. The 1976 outbreak centered on the Yambuku Mission Hospital is a good example. This hospital served as the primary medical facility for a local population of around 60,000 as well as travelers. This facility was relatively small, having 17 staff members and holding 120 beds in its crowded wards. It also processed some 6000-12000 outpatients on a monthly basis. Combine this with the five improperly sterilized syringes used to administer injections (the primary dosage method at this facility) and a severe lack of barrier nursing procedures. This would appear to be an optimal situation for the transmission of pathogens that spread through contaminated body fluids. According to the Trade-off Hypothesis and the selective conditions outlined above, pathogen strains that have high reproduction rates (and hence high virulence) would be at a distinct selective advantage. Cases cared for out of the hospital setting would also tend to favor quickly reproducing and more virulent pathogens. Horizontal transfer by physical contact is directly affected by the concentration of virus particles in a contaminated fluid; hence a virus with a higher reproduction rate would be able to successfully exploit a given number of transfer opportunities. This setting lacks the direct viral inoculation by contaminated needle present in the hospital setting, which would perhaps result in less effective transmission. This would also favor more strongly virulent pathogens, which reproduce quickly and successfully exploit transmission opportunities (Ebola Haemorrhagic Fever in Zaire 1978). The conditions present during the 1976 Sudan outbreak were largely similar. Transmission occurred mainly to family members providing nursing care (without barrier nurs ing techniques) and through contaminated medical equipment and direct contact in a hospital setting. These conditions would also seem to favor more virulent pathogens. Other examples of particularly high virulence outbreaks (in terms of host mortality) also occur under conditions with large amounts of close contact between potential hosts, likely resulting in high transmission. Examples of these situations are found in the 1994 and 1996-97 Gabon outbreaks, which took place at a mining camp and (initially) a remote forest camp respectively. Both of these outbreaks featured transmission of numerous secondary infections through close contact with infected individuals. According to the Trade-off hypothesis, high transmission rates are linked to high levels of virulence. By reducing rate of transmission it may be possible to artificially select for less virulent strains. In the hospital and home care setting, hosts suffering from highly virulent strains with high symptom manifestation (high virulence) are likely to transmit the virus to other hosts, favoring virulent strains. Application of sanitation and barrier nursing practices can reduce transmission of the virulent strains present under these conditions. This could potential favor any less virulent strains, i.e. ones that do not manifest severe symptoms that require hospitalization and are unlikely to be fatal, present in the environment. This could gradually reduce overall virulence over the course of the outbreak. Even if less virulent strains are not present, prevention of transmission is likely to slow and eventually stop the outbreak as the number of remaining susceptible hosts is reduced through various means (Ewald 2004). The Ebola Virus and Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever present an interesting case for evolution of virulence in a pathogen. The periodic outbreaks of the disease offer examples of how selective pressures imposed on a pathogen follow the predictions of the Trade-off hypothesis linking virulence (and attendant host mortality) with rate of transmission. This hypothesis and the conclusions it suggests fit with data observed in outbreaks of virulent Ebola Hemorrhagic Fever. Conditions of dense susceptible host population and rapid and effective transmission seem to demonstrate high incidences of virulence indicating that there may be selective pressure for virulent strains under these conditions. Evidence of strains showing low virulence is suggested by the Ebola virus presence in a natural reservoir species and by the formation of antibodies by healthy individuals not linked to current epidemics. Due to this (presumed) variation amongst strains and the relationship between transmission and virulen ce proposed by the Trade-off hypothesis, reduction of transmission of the virus in hospital and homecare settings may lead to a reduction in strain virulence in prolonged outbreaks.

The Synthesis of Actualizing and Escaping the Self in Christian Identity and Conversion :: Essays Papers

The Synthesis of Actualizing and Escaping the Self in Christian Identity and Conversion Ever since encountering Socrates’ simplistic but profound maxim, â€Å"know thyself,† I have taken intentional steps along the journey of my own self-discovery. However, the more I attempt to analyze the complex integration of motives, thoughts, actions, unconscious memories, sensual experiences, emotional reactions, etc. that composes my â€Å"self,† the more I realize the infinite depths into which Socrates’ seemingly simple saying has plunged me. Nevertheless, my curious mind, whether a curse or a gift, craves any tidbit of wisdom someone wishes to impart about how/where/with what means one can come to â€Å"know thyself† better. Perhaps it’s a result of growing up in a capitalistic, progressive, individualistic society, but my continual search proves I believe more knowledge will somehow lead to a fuller life. I want to improve, upgrade, supersize, maximize! Along this journey, I have stumbled upon many recent psychologists who propose that to help someone know the self more fully, the psychologist must provide â€Å"unconditional positive regard† for the personhood of the other, that is, identify with the client without questioning the position from which she or he speaks (McAdams 440-1). Allowing clients to talk, these psychologists believe, provides them opportunity to access their own self-knowledge. They already possess the answers they need to improve their lives; they simply need someone to affirm that truth so they can begin to believe it themselves. No outside authority needs to tell them what they’re thinking or feeling, let alone what they ought to do to change themselves. Since I believe in and have experienced unconditional positive regard as a catalyst to personal empowerment, I wanted to stand up and cheer, â€Å"Yes!† with these professionals. But another professional caused me to reconsider. Paul Vitz, a Christian psychologist, authors Psychology as Religion: The Cult of Self-Worship, a response to the self-actualization and self-help movements popularized by these psychologists. He criticizes Rogers’ client-centered therapy as encouraging a narrowly-focused, self-centered lifestyle that excludes broader cultural and historical themes (Vitz 21). â€Å"Selfism† as he labels this movement, simply encourages people to feed their own egos and ignore both the reality of their fallenness and the responsibility to love others. Not only that, but selfism defames God, for it places self at the center of one’s focus, thus creating an idol: â€Å"To worship one’s self (in self-realization) or to worship all humanity is, in Christian terms, simple idolatry operating from the usual motive of unconscious egotism†(Vitz 93).

Crusades :: essays research papers

Later Crusades Essay.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After the first Christian Crusade that begun in 1095 there were eight classified crusades that generally aimed towards the area of Sirya and Palestne that lasted untill the 1270’s. Yet after much humiliation and the repeated defeat of the Crusaders in the Lavant, most of the Eropean powers understood the fact that the Holy Land was unnatainable. Most the crusading efforts were aimed at the enemies of Catholics such as the Turkish invaders who sought to destroy Christianity and the doctrinal heretics in Bohemia. Two such crusades are The Crusade agains the Ottoman turks which started around the mid 14th century and the crusade agains the Hussite heretics which started in 1420. To further understand the similarities and differences between these two crusades perhaps it would be best to associate them to our definition of a crusade and see how they compare and differ from each other as well as compare them to the first crusade. The reason I chose to analize pa rticularly these two crusades is because they fall into the same time frame, have different objectives and perhaps hinder the each other’s succes.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After the defeat of the Seljuk Turks by the Mongols in 1243 a Ghazi prince by the name of Ertugrul had assimilated a small state by his death in 1280. This state, later ruled by his son Osman had spread it’s rule over a large area in north-west Asia Minor, as far as the Agean and the Black sea. This was the beginning of the Ottoman Turks as well as the beginning of their wide spread conquest of the region due to their state being well governed as well as having a disciplined army. By 1331 the Ottoman Turks have taken Nicaea and Uskudar (across the Bosporus from Constantinople) and by 1389 had singificant dominance over the Balkans. In 1370 the new Catholic pope, Gregory XI was already raising the threat of the Ottoman’s to the European lords. Yet a major unity of European powers were wrecked by the self-interest of each country and it’s benefit. For example the German princes did not want to have a major crusade for the fear of rising imperial authority. During this time every ruler in Europe â€Å"†¦acknowledged the need for a crusade, as the only practicable means of pooling the resources required to combat this massive and hostile power; but in practice nearly all of them blocked its organization† .

Heideggers Critique of Cartesianism Essays -- Philosophy Papers

Heidegger is one of the few Western thinkers to have succeeded in going beyond the Western philosophic tradition. Because his radical criticism is believed to have fractured the foundations of modern philosophy, his thinking is usually at the center of the controversy between the defenders of the tradition and those who wish to break with it and start afresh. In the heat of this debate, the question of Heidegger's place in relation to that tradition in general and to Cartesianism in particular has been neglected. I wish to address the question by focusing on the major aspects of Heidegger's critique of Cartesian philosophy and the modern tradition. I will first show that the strength of his criticism lies in its all-encompassing penetration of the foundations of modern philosophy, running through both the ontological and epistemological channels. Ontologically, Heidegger presents a critique of subjectivism; epistemologically, he discredits the correspondence conception of truth and i ts underlying visual metaphor. I will then look at his view of history and the meaning of his concept of "overcoming" in order to show that his aim is not to destroy the tradition, but to provide a wider basis for it by rescuing forgotten elements imbedded in the tradition itself. Finally, I will show that in this process of "overcoming," Heidegger did not really depart from the tradition, but absorbed some of its basic tenets, as his concept of death echoes major elements of Cartesian doubt. 1. The Critique of Subjectivism One of the major features of Heidegger's thinking is his criticism of Cartesian subjectivity. According to Heidegger, in regarding the ego cogito as the guarantor of its own continuing existence and as the basis of all things... ...d: Basil Blackwell, 1980); Abbau can be find Heidegger's Basic Problems of Phenomenology (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1982); Verbindung is discussed mainly in "The Principle of Identity," in Identity and Difference (New York: Harper and Row, 1969, pp. 23-41); for Uberwindung see Heidegger's Nietzsche. (4) Nietzsche, vol. 4 p. 97. See Aristotle's words: "that which is called a substance most strictly, primarily, and most of all, is that which is neither said of a subject nor in a subject, e.g., the individual man or the individual horse." (Aristotle's Categories, 2a 11-13). (5) Heidegger, Basic Problems of Phenomenology p.111. (6) Heidegger M., Discourse on Thinking New York: Harper and Row, 1966, p. 7. (7) Nietzsche, vol. 4, p. 106. (8) Heidegger, M. History of the Concept of Time, Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1992, pp. 316-317.

11 & 12 Language related assignment Essay

Generative Context A woman student in Brighton walked home by herself late at night and was mugged. She was carrying a lot of cash, didn’t tell her friends she was leaving the club and walked down some dark steps. The next day I criticised her actions. 2. Meaning We use this form to express a critical attitude towards the past actions of someone else. (Advice after the event – Rosemary Aitken – Teaching Tenses – p. 138) 3. Form (subject) + should (+ not) + have + past participle 4. Phonemic transcription, including marking the main stressed syllables (Longman dictionary of contemporary English) Particular attention needs to be paid to the weak form of â€Å"have† and, possibly there may need to be some revision of the various pronunciations of the â€Å"ed† ending of the past participle 5. Concept checking questions (with answers), and, where appropriate, time lines, diagrams, pictures, etc Did she go home by herself? Yes Was it dangerous? Maybe Was it a good idea? No Am I criticising her? Yes Am I talking about the past or the future? The past Entirely accurate Accesses reference material & reference information learned about language to an appropriate source No evidence – even implicit – of appropriate source being referenced Evidence (even implicit) of some referencing of appropriate sources Plenty of explicit evidence of appropriately referenced research Uses written language which is clear, accurate and appropriate to the task Numerous errors

Ethical Codes Essay

The increasing dependences on computers for critical infrastructure essentials for the functioning of a society and its economy has given rise to host of ethical, social, and legal issues. As software engineers, it is a bounden duty to design and build software intended for use by a set of individuals for a specified set of purpose, which initiate many issues about consumer’s privacy. Following is the exploration from three constituents. First, websites collect consumer’s private information. Social networks play a vital role in the life of Internet users, and more than a half billion people post vast amounts of information about themselves to share with online friends and colleagues. As more and more people join social networking sites, questions are beginning to surface about the safety of user’s information. A new study has found that the practices of many popular social networking sites typically make that personal information available to companies that track Web users’ browsing habits and allow them to link anonymous browsing habits to specific people. Like most commercial websites, online social networks use third-party tracking sites to learn about the browsing habits of their visitors. Cookies are maintained by a Web browser and contain information that enable tracking sites to build profiles of the websites visited by a user. Each time the user visits a new website, the tracking site can review those cookies and serve up advertisements that might appeal to the user. For example, if the user frequently visits food sites, user might see an advertisement for a new cookbook. With the leakage of this type personal information, there is a significant risk of having one’s identity linked to an inaccurate or misleading browsing profile. Browsing profiles record the websites has been accessed by a particular computer, neither who was using the computer at the time nor why particular sites were chosen. This will lead to a serious problem inaccurate profiling by tracking sites. For example, a site about cancer was visited for curiosity rather than intent, inaccurate profiling would potentially lead to issues with health care coverage, or other areas of our personal lives. The second issue is when a consumer uses a product created by a computer professional. The main concept in engineering ethics is â€Å"professional responsibility†, such as political philosopher Langdon Winner, are critical of the traditional preoccupation of engineering ethics with specific moral dilemmas confronting individuals(Winner, 1990): â€Å"Ethical responsibility†¦ nvolves more than leading a decent, honest, truthful life†¦ And it involves something much more than making wise choice when such choices suddenly, unexpectedly present themselves. Our moral obligations must†¦ include a willingness to engage others in the difficult work of defining the crucial choice that confront technological society†¦ † But unfortunately, with the development of tec hnology and the awakening consciousness of human protection, user privacy is becoming a sensitive issue , after the two giants Google and Apple have stumbled in this regard. Recently, the recognition of the recent HTC phones to collect the user’s data. A user in a system upgrade and found a new CIQ application, the application can access statistics, including the application frequency, GPS location, even after the use of information related to home video cameras, and back to the respective companies. HTC aspects of this incident came to light on the phone today to confirm pre-installed software to collect user information, but all processes are encrypted safe manner. HTC also said in a statement, the company will protect user privacy, commitment to the future equipment and then collect information, the user will be prompted to make a clear choice. Although the company will give customers the utmost assurance of their privacy, why HTC phones collected the user’s data from the beginning? Finally, the employer or company who offers a services. With the rocketing development of Internet, most companies see web services as a platform to become a very profitable business in the near future. In other words, thousands of customers’ private information will be stored in the Internet, which could have serious consequences if a firm lacks the security to protect sensitive information. For example, the most infamous Internet attack occurred this year was the one suffered by Sony. Everything started with the theft of data from PlayStation Network, affecting 77 million users worldwide. Not only was this the biggest data theft ever but the situation was poorly handled by Sony. To make things worse, the stolen data was specially sensitive, including user’s names, billing addresses, email addresses, PlayStation Network IDs, passwords, birthdates, purchase history, credit card numbers, etc. If this was not sufficient enough, Sony Online Entertainment was subject to another attack a few days later, a data theft that affected another 24 million users. In short, the chief man-made cause is deficiency in professional responsibility. If the company built information securi ty system and strengthened individual information protection from the start, which would avert the tragedy from getting worse. In conclusion, the actions involved in carrying out the right and ethical solution to any engineering problem may not be easy, especially in today’s world. But the path that must be taken should be obvious. This type of decision-making comes with experience, but the basic principles can be learned. The work that an engineer does often impacts the lives of countless people. With such a responsibility it is up to them to act in the most ethical, honest and trustworthy manner possible.

Questions in this section

You will have a choice of two questions in this section: Part A is the starter question, for which you are awarded a maximum of three marks. You need to explain the term, then in order to get full marks you will need to give an example: The only terms you will be asked about are the following: science, scientific benefits, ethical costs, genetic Influences, environmental Influences, cultural bias, gender bias, free will and determinism.In the second part – Part B you will be asked to either – describe, discuss or evaluate one of the following , for which there is a maximum of 22 marks – psychology as a science the balance of scientific benefits measured against ethical costs in psychology the balance of genetic and environmental influences on human behavior issues of cultural bias issues of gender bias the question of free will and determinism In respect of human behavior. The essay needs to be In the form of an argument- a dialogue between opposing views.To get full marks your argument needs to be presented in a structured manner, clearly interpreted and analyses, you need to have range and depth of evidence, reasoned conclusion, use appropriate terms throughout. Up to 15 marks will be awarded for this (AAA). When providing evidence, the mark scheme says that these do not need to be provided in equal measure. This means that you can equal and depth range of evidence or, you can give a very wide range, but not so much depth, or discuss a couple of pieces of research in depth, but thereby not showing quite as much range..Challenge with the view that at least some ‘levels' of psychology are scientific, but conclude with the argument that not all psychologists think science with its monotheistic approach is an appropriate for psychology and this leads to the use of therapies which reflect this dual approach. Chemotherapy, for example, which might be thought of as the more scientific response to abnormal behavior has been shown at times t o be less successful than CAB, a more person-centered and impotence of the therapist as well as the service-user's perceptions of their competence.Psychology eclectic use of several approaches and a range of methodologies lead to the conclusion that it is in part scientific, but employs subjective strategies to explore behavior when deemed more appropriate. This has been acknowledged within the British Psychological Society with its recently founded qualitative methodological group. Use the following research to support your answer: Psychology as a Science Arguments against Psychology as a Science One of the arguments against psychology as a science is that it lacks objectivity and intro.Issues of experimenter bias and demand characteristics can compromise objectivity and validity However, disconcerting research by John et al (2012) has also found evidence to suggest that, in some instances, the research process is manipulated to suit the researcher (rather than to reveal any object ive fact) further undermines Psychology status as a science. Ironically however, Psychology claim to be a science means that results which are deliberately manipulated or distorted by the researcher (through one or more of a variety of questionable research raciest) are given greater credence than they deserve because they are ‘scientific'.Trading on Psychology scientific status, the assumption is that the adulterated results are accurate and objective representations of reality. John et al (2012)g's work involved carrying out an anonymous electronic survey about the use often questionable research practices. These included things such as the researcher failing to a report all dependent variables, collecting additional data after checking for significance, selectively reporting studies that Worked' (I. E. Significant findings) and falsifying data.The researchers also asked participants to make estimates of the proportion of other psychologists who engaged in those practices, a nd the proportion likely to admit to carrying out those practices in the survey. They incorporated into their work an incentive to encourage participants to tell the truth. Some respondents were told that a larger charity donation would be made by the researchers if they answered honestly) and this did lead to a higher rate of admission amongst those given the incentive.The results were astonishing and raise important questions concerning the use of scientific method in Psychology. One in ten psychologists admitted falsifying data; the majority to selectively reporting studies (67%), not reporting all dependent variables ( 74% ); collecting data after checking for significance (71 reporting unexpected findings as expected (54%) and excluding post data post-hoc (58%). A considerable number (35%) admitted that they had doubts about the integrity of their research, with differences being found amongst disciplines within Psychology.

Barriers to Effective Communication Essay

Most important amongst the ever-recurring and constant troubles in the field of police administration is that concerned with creating and sustaining a successful method of communication. Communication is the most important medium for concerning agreement between all the personnel of a department as to the police goals. It is the foundation for a regular and ongoing understanding of problems and accomplishments practiced on a continuing basis to reach their final objectives. The process of successful communications in a department starts with the leadership establishing clear guidelines how its personnel should interact with each other, whether it is by memo, emails, forms, daily briefings or training. Leadership in any organization must identify and mandate the objectives of the organization. Pfiffner (1951) stated â€Å"In all management situations, communication consists of organizational relationships and mechanics on the one hand, and the human factor on the other, in actuality both existing together. † Communication is the method of transmitting cues, mostly written and oral, in order to adjust human behavior. The communication process works in three steps, initiate, transmit, and impact. In a police department, initiate and transmit could be where the desk sergeant, issues the daily tasking that he receives from his leadership to his patrol officers beginning a shift. Impact takes place when the officers going out on patrol implement the tasking given and could be discussing the tasking amongst each other as well to gain feedback. Hearing is a passive occurrence that requires no effort. Listening, on the other hand, is a conscious choice that demands your attention and concentration† (Livestrong, 2001). The differences between hearing and listening is that when someone is speaking and you are hearing when you just hear the words coming out, not really paying attention to all of what is said. When listening, you are collecting thought on what is being said, but if you think you already know what the person is talking about, a person could just disregard the words that were just passed. There are generally four basic levels of hearing and listening, according to Toast Masters. org. You can easily fall into one or these more categories in different conversations. A non-listener is totally preoccupied with his personal thoughts and though he hears words, he doesn’t listen to what is being said. Passive listeners hear the words but don’t fully absorb or understand them. Listeners pay attention to the speaker, but grasp only some of the intended message. Active listeners are completely focused on the speaker and understand the meaning of the words without distortion† (Livestrong, 2011). Communications are vital in law enforcement. Police personnel have to comprehend the importance of tone of voice, pitch, and variation, the variances of hearing and listening. Facial expressions, body movements and posture are also significant for effective communications. Cultural and ethnic dynamics are essential factors of a police officer’s communication skills. The formal and informal channels of communication in criminal justice organizations are two distinct processes. Formal relations, occupation explanations, duties and processes are found in formal communication channels. These channels match the formal chains of command, and accountability recognized in organizational charts, standard operating procedures, and policy manuals. For many police departments and organizations, formal communication channels are the primary standard and rarely differentiate. Informal channels are considered a â€Å"grapevine or rumor mill† type construct. Police officers discussing an incident in the locker room can be considered informal, and if the district attorney and a defense lawyer are chatting about a case at lunch or a washroom are prime examples for informal channels of communications. In an informal channel of communication, the original words that were spoken could be altered, invalid, and misconstrued so much in a department, that the information can provide inefficiency in any organization. â€Å"Barriers to communication often arise when one party is concerned about personal or professional status. The four basic categories, or types, of obstacles to effective communication are as follows: (1) emotional barriers, (2) physical barriers, (3) semantic barriers, and (4) ineffective listening. Each of these barriers can cause either the sender or the receiver to fail to communicate effectively† (Wallace and Roberson, 2009). Emotional barriers can exist in the receiver or the sender. Individuals base their translating of information on respective occurrences and beliefs. If a person believes they will be not taken seriously or made fun of when making a idea, then they will not participate in discussions or send their message. When a police officer has a case of low esteem, it could affect their duties on the street, believing that they might not be able to make a difference, stop certain criminals, and that barrier can cost the lives of innocent people or even peers. Physical barriers are the properties of an atmosphere that can cause communications to be challenging. Examples of physical barriers include equipment that does not work properly, having one officer on patrol instead of a team of two officers patrolling together in a bad neighborhood. Semantic barriers can cause differences between individuals, when one person might say one thing, and another forms an entirely different conclusion to that was said. This form of barrier can exist in a department where communication is very poor from the leadership down to the most junior personnel. Ineffective listening will occur if law enforcement personnel fail to pay attention to what others are communicating. The subject of discussion might bore or be irrelevant to certain persons, or just be to complicate to comprehend, and that transmission will be useless. Effective communication is fundamental in any chain of command. Leadership must be able to communicate its orders and direction to subordinates in a clear, concise manner, and with a positive message, so subordinate’s can perform to the best of their ability and listen to the message that is spoken, instead of just hearing what they want to hear. For an organization to communicate effectively, a person must be able to overcome the barriers that exist, and change one’s thoughts or feelings with another coworker. Taking personal responsibility ensures their workplace operates smoothly, and can rid the barriers that may plaque the organization.